Whatever progress has been made in the development of different races of fowls, and from the Jungle Fowl to nearly one hundred and fifty distinct varieties, all of which have distinguishable and distinct symbols of beauty, marks as great progress as has been accomplished in any branch of animal breeding, has been the result of the application of only a few elementary and fundamental principles.
"Like Begets Like"
Upon this principle as a foundation has rested the entire structure of standard-bred poultry breeding.
Coupled together with another principle quite as elementary and possibly quite as fundamental, namely, that defects in one parent may be corrected by selecting for the parent of the opposite sex one that excels in the same character in which the first was defective, or one that fails in the same character as the first, but in the opposite direction, it is responsible for the progress made thus far.
This amounts to the following precepts : When two birds of the opposite sex having like characters are mated, the progeny will be like the parents with respect to these like characters; when the characters are unlike in the parents, these characters in the progeny will vary between the extremes exemplified by the parents, with a tendency for the greater number of the progeny to show a mean between these extremes. Together these simple rules account for the development of the different breeds, the creation of the new varieties of the same breed, and the improvement and development of those varieties already established
Why Like Begets Like
Of this precept no fundamental or scientific explanation can be offered. It is accepted as an axiom
to a certain extent, though to the full extent it does not, perhaps, quite conform to modern theories. It is as fundamentally true in the breeding 'of all other forms of life as in the breeding of poultry. One of the first facts that any student of either plant or animal life observes is that every seed produces after its
kind. The maxim "like begets like," then, is in a general way axiomatically proved. In animal breeding, the reproducting sex cannot fertilize itself, hence the proof of the maxim in its entirety cannot be expected. Breeders of poultry go this far, however, when male and female alike in certain particulars are mated together, that it is expected that the progeny will be like the parents in these particulars. For instance, when a male and female both have a comb with five points, a majority of the chicks from the pair would be expected to have five-pointed combs. What deviation did occur would be attributed to the ancestry of one or the other, or both, of the parents. Another example, specimens of the four-toed variety mated together produce four-toed varieties in all cases, while those of the five-toed variety when mated together produce five-toed chicks in nearly all cases. The same applies when two specimens of the opposite sex with reddish-bay eyes are mated together. Deviation would be accounted for by those of the ancestors that did not have red eyes.
To Offset Defects
As an example of the second principle in general use by poultry breeders everywhere, that of correcting a defect by mating with specimens of the opposite sex that fail in the opposite direction, a male with a four-point comb, one point short of standard requirement, would be mated with a
female with six points on her comb, and vice versa. If one of the mated pair had light eyes, it would be mated to a specimen with very dark reddish-bay or even with deep red eyes. A specimen of a breed which is required to have five toes that has but four would be considered so faulty that it would not be used as a breeder; it is a disqualified bird. It is just as serious a matter when the specimen of the four-toed variety has five toes. It is discarded for the same reason. In many cases this principle is modified to the extent of mating birds that are faulty in certain respects to the opposite sex that are as near perfection as it is possible to obtain. Faults may not be corrected as speedily in this way as by the other, but the method is more secure in the long run, because it is better that the fowls should inherit one excellent feature than two faults, even though they be of opposite tendencies.
Pedigrees
Broadly speaking, these rules for mating have been very largely depended upon by breeders of standard-bred poultry, whether for exhibition or commercial purposes. In practice, the pedigrees for many generations are also usually kept to help the breeder in applying these precepts, especially of
the male side, as that is much more easily recorded than the female side, though when a line of heavy egg-producers are sought, the record of the dam becomes paramount and is invariably kept as it is, or should be, in the female line when double matings are used to produce exhibition specimens. Pedigrees
are ot great assistance, especially if the characteristics of each generation can be kept in mind, because the more generations in which a certain character appears the more fixed this character becomes, whether it is meritorious or defective. Word descriptions, feathers and photographs of each sire
and dam are the most common means of keeping the individuality of each generation in mind, some depending upon one or two ways, while others use all three. However it is done, it is essential, not only to know the pedigree for several generations, but it is equally essential to have an accurate recollection of each sire and dam for a number of generations, as it is the only way to know how the line is producing for this or for that desired quality.
Uniformity
Uniformity is also desired, not only in each breeding pen, but in the ancestry as well. The more the chicks resemble the parents and the parents resemble their parents, the greater is the proportion of exhibition birds to be found in the flocks year after year, provided, of course, that the early ancestry
was such. The desire on the part of breeders has been to produce uniformity in their flocks, and to do so, they have often bred from single pairs of birds, though the same results may be accomplished by keeping a record of both sire and dam, even though more than one female is allowed with the male ; the offspring are then full brothers and sisters, or half-brothers and sisters, and can be recorded as such. By this method of mating closely related individuals, but few generations are required to establish most uniform flocks, the quality of which is, however, determined largely by the quality of the parent stock and the breeder's knowledge of this particular line of birds, and his skill in properly weighing the power of transmission of each individual.
Prepotency
The power, which it is admitted some birds possess and some do not, to transmit their own characteristics to their offspring is called prepotency. In reality, it may be said to be the difference in the ability or power to transmit that exists between the parents. We sometimes hear of an application differing slightly from the above, because there is occasionally an individual that is so very prepotent that one or more of its prominent characteristics are distinguishable in the progeny for several
generations. In such instances, the individual that originally possessed and first transmitted this characteristic is often spoken of as being very prepotent. The most generally accepted theory of explanation has been that by constantly selecting and breeding specimens with certain characteristics, these characteristics become fixed in the progeny, and after a certain number of generations, more or less, the aforementioned characteristics are transmitted in a remarkable degree by certain individuals.
The qualities transmitted vary. That is, a bird may be prepotent in certain characters and fail to transmit others. One bird might transmit its constitutional vigor, or the shape of comb only, while some birds impress their characteristics so generally and perfectly upon their offspring that we note a general
resemblance to the parent of the same sex. It is not uncommon for an individual of wonderful constitution and vigor to throw several offspring bearing a striking resemblance to the parent in a single season.
The Value of Prepotency
The value of prepotency can hardly be overestimated. When that quality is possessed by a female of high egg-producing capacity, its worth increases with each generation, according to the egg-producing capacity, and as the number of the descendants in the flocks increase.
Male One-Half the Flock
And then, if the foregoing is true, how important an asset prepotency must be in any male which,
because he exercises his share of influence upon each and every female with which he mates, is obviously one-half the flock. If the male is of unusual merit, or especially if he possesses more merit than the average of the females associated with him, and if through his ability to transmit his own characteristics he exercises such an influence upon the progeny that he becomes more
than one-half of the flock, we can readily see the advantage of prepotency in such males.
Sex Control of Characters
Breeders generally prize prepotency in a male. Ample explanation has been offered by pointing
out how the male is one-half the flock. There is, too, the growing belief that the male is responsible for certain qualities, but opinions as to just which ones differ materially. Some think the male has most influence upon color and head points, while the female controls the shape of body, etc. But it must be admitted that no tangible proof of these various opinions can be secured.
Constitutional Vigor
That constitutional vigor is a vital factor in all branches of poultry husbandry will undoubtedly
have been inferred from several of the foregoing passages. The necessity of that quality described by such terms as health, vigor, stamina, hardiness, ruggedness and several more, perhaps, is so
generally understood and recognized that it requires little more than passing notice here.
It is also thoroughly understood that this quality is just as vitally essential in the yards of the most exclusive fancier, who rears but a few choice birds each season, as on the farm of the commercial breeder who raises his flock for the number of eggs it produces or the number of pounds of flesh ; the first cannot perpetuate his flock to reincarnate the ideals of his dreams, the second cannot produce the eggs or the pounds of flesh without fowls of rugged constitutions, which must prevail in the stock.
To maintain health in a flock and to hatch chicks that inherit a strong vital force, weak birds must not be admitted to the breeding yards. That is, to maintain constitutional vigor in your flock, select as breeders those birds that possess that essential quality. The strongest constitutions may be undermined by injudicious feeding, by undue exposures, poor sanitation and poor management
generally. These are topics taken up in at a later date.
From the Plymouth Rock Standard Breed Book
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